The sociological and cultural approaches to the study of science

The sociological and cultural approaches to the study of science

Science is here as an activity management system

The subjects of research are the connection of the scientific community with certain styles of thinking

The origin of science is regarded as a socio-cultural phenomenon within the sociology of knowledge (M. Scheler, C. Mannheim) and the sociology of science (L. Fleck, F. Znaniecki, R. Merton).

The sociological approach to science reveals the dependence of science on the needs of technological development, on existing socio-political structures.

 Merton connects the emergence of science with Puritanism, making the main emphasis on the formation of the norms of science as a social institution.

Cognitive activity is regarded as an activity corresponding to these universal norms.

Within the framework of the cultural approach to science, all civilizations existing on Earth were divided (Toynbee) into traditional and technocratic ones. The differences between the traditional and technogenic civilization are radical, which largely extends to science.

Traditional societies are characterized by a slowed pace of social change. Of course, innovations also arise in them both in the sphere of production and in the regulation of social relations.

Accordingly, in the culture of these societies, the priority is given to traditions, patterns and norms that accumulate the experience of ancestors, canonized thinking styles. Innovative (scientific) activity is by no means perceived here as the highest value, on the contrary, it has limitations and is only permissible within centuries of proven traditions.

In technogenic civilizations, everything is not so. It can be said that the extensive development of history here is replaced by an intensive one; spatial existence is temporary. The most important and truly epoch-making, world-historical change associated with the transition from a traditional society to an anthropogenic civilization, is the emergence of a new value system. Value itself is considered to be innovation, originality, generally new. Therefore, in the new European culture and in the subsequent development of technogenic societies, the category of scientific character takes on a kind of symbolic meaning. It is perceived as a necessary condition for prosperity and progress. The value of scientific rationality and its active influence on other spheres of culture becomes a characteristic feature of the life of technogenic societies.

In general, through the prism of culture - science acts as a way of obtaining and accumulating knowledge, a means of satisfying the needs of a person (the main scientist).

The problem of internalism and externalism in understanding the mechanisms of

scientific activity.

Externalism - the flow in historiography and the philosophy of science, emerged in England in the 1930s. as a reaction to the positivist-oriented history of science.

The externalist trend was aimed at revealing the links between the socio-economic development of the society and the development of scientific knowledge. By creating the first programs of historical and scientific research, the externalists paid attention to the chronological systematization, the description of the mechanism of progressive ideas. It should be noted that many works, although they touched on historical material, used sociological methods in the analysis, trying to put everything in a unified, universal for all sciences scheme.

To a certain extent, one of the predecessors of externalism can be considered F. Engels

Internalism - the current in the historiography and philosophy of science, formed in the 1930s. as an opposition to externalism. Presented in the works on the philosophy of science - primarily from K. Popper and his disciple I. Lakatos.

The internalistic trend (or immanent), which can be called an alternative to the externalist, defended the view that science develops not because of social influence, but as a result of its internal evolution, where the main thing is to change the way of thinking. These problems are reflected in the works of A. Koyre, J. Agassi, J. Randell, J. Price, R. Hall and others.

The internalist trend in the historiography of science, explains the development of science exclusively intellectual factors. The term "structure of scientific thinking" is used (the concept was introduced by Koyre) and it is believed that science should be isolated from socioeconomic, technical and other material factors.

So, the representatives of the internalist conception of the development of science believe that science develops due to immanent, ie. intrinsic to it, logic. Representatives of the externalist concept believe that the development of science is closely connected with the socio-economic development of society, that is, make an emphasis on external factors. In modern conditions, it is necessary to take into account the main points of both concepts.

The problem of internalism and externalism in understanding the mechanisms of

scientific activity.

Экстернализм — течение в историографии и философии науки, возникло в Англии в 1930-е гг. как реакция на позитивистски ориентированную историю науки.

Экстерналистское направление ставило своей целью выявление связей социально-экономического развития общества и развития научных знаний. Создавая первые программы историко-научных исследований, экстерналисты обращали внимание на хронологическую систематизацию, описание механизма прогрессивных идей. Следует отметить, что многие работы, хотя и затрагивали исторический материал, в анализе использовали методы социологии, пытаясь все уложить в единую, универсальную для всех наук схему.